Hebrew, Greek, and Swedenborg’s Explanation of Propitiation

Note: This article is an even more technical follow-up to my earlier article, “How did Swedenborg interpret 1 John 2:2: ‘He is the propitiation for our sins’?” Both articles were originally responses to questions posted on Christianity StackExchange. See the end of this article for links to the original question and the original version of my answer. This version is slightly edited from the StackExchange version. If you read the earlier article first, this one will make more sense.

The question answered in this article was expressing doubt about the connection between the word for “mercy seat” in the Old Testament and Swedenborg’s understanding of “propitiation” in the New Testament based on Swedenborg connecting the mercy seat of the Ark of the Covenant in the Old Testament with the word traditionally translated “propitiation” in the New Testament.

This article may not be everyone’s cup of tea. However, there are a few spiritual gems scattered among all the vocabulary and linguistics. For readers not interested in the technicalities, I would suggest skimming over the vocabulary lists and looking for the paragraphs of explanation.

I am also posting it here on Spiritual Insights for Everyday Life to show that when it comes to Hebrew and Greek, Swedenborg was no slouch! His teachings and Bible interpretations are based on extensive study of the Bible in its original languages. For the Swedenborg nerds, there are a few tidbits in the appendix at the end that you might find interesting.

Here we go!

Swedenborg’s concept of propitiation

As stated in the summary and conclusion of my answer to the question, How did Swedenborg interpret 1 John 2:2: “He is the propitiation for our sins”?:

“Propitiation,” as Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) understands it, has nothing to do with appeasing the supposed wrath of God the Father at our sins, as understood in traditional Christian theology. So it does not mean God being appeased by the shed blood and the death of his Son on the Cross.

There is no need for such appeasement, Swedenborg says, since such wrath and vengeance cannot be attributed to a God of pure love and mercy. God’s “wrath” and “vengeance,” when encountered in the Bible are, rather, metaphors for how God’s love strikes people who are in opposition to it because they are actively engaging in evil desires, thoughts, and actions. . . .

Instead, Swedenborg says, “propitiation” has to do with God “covering over” our sins, meaning forgiving them out of pure love and mercy—which forgiveness we receive when we repent from our sins and live a good life instead, as God commands us to do throughout the entire Bible, both Old Testament and New.

The difference between Swedenborg’s system and traditional Nicene Christian theology is not in the original meaning of the words used in the Hebrew and Greek Bibles to refer to atonement and propitiation, but in how they are understood in relation to the nature of God and the atonement brought about by Jesus Christ.

However, since I already covered this difference in my earlier article on propitiation, here I will focus on the underlying Hebrew and Greek words—which, though they appear in various forms, constitute a unified family of words that all focus on the same root meaning of “a merciful covering over and forgiving of sins.”

כָּפַר and its derivatives in the Hebrew Bible

As stated in my earlier article, though there are a few other words in the Hebrew Bible that are translated as “propitiation” or “expiation,” the most common one by far is the root word כָּפַר and its derivatives. Here are Strong’s definitions of the root word and its derivatives, together with links where the fuller definitions in Brown–Driver–Briggs and the Gesenius Lexicon can also be found:

• כָּפַר kâphar, kaw-far’; a primitive root; to cover (specifically with bitumen); figuratively, to expiate or condone, to placate or cancel:—appease, make an atonement, cleanse, disannul, forgive, be merciful, pacify, pardon, purge (away), put off, (make) reconcile(-liation).
• כַּפֹּרֶת kappôreth, kap-po’-reth; from H3722; a lid (used only of the cover of the sacred Ark):—mercy seat.
• כִּפֻּר kippur, kip-poor’; from H3722; expiation (only in plural):—atonement.
• כֹּפֶר kôpher, ko’-fer; from H3722; properly, a cover, i.e. (literally) a village (as covered in); (specifically) bitumen (as used for coating), and the henna plant (as used for dyeing); figuratively, a redemption-price:—bribe, camphire, pitch, ransom, satisfaction, sum of money, village.

Note that when each definition after the first one says, “from H3722,” it is saying that these words are derivatives of כָּפַר, whose Strong’s number is H3722.

As stated in the definition of the root word כָּפַר, the root meaning of this family of words is “to cover,” from which it derives its figurative meanings relating to expiation and atonement. As covered more extensively in my earlier article, this is in line with Swedenborg’s understanding of “atonement” as God mercifully “covering,” or forgiving, our sins. We accept God’s forgiveness when we repent from our sins and live a good life according to God’s commandments.

ἵλεως and its derivatives in the Greek New Testament and Septuagint

Though the translation of the above Hebrew word family varies in different contexts, the most common Greek translation in the Septuagint (LXX), and the most common related word usage in the Greek New Testament (GNT), is one or another of the derivatives of the Greek word ἵλεως. Here is a listing of them, similarly defined and linked, except that since ἐξιλάσκομαι does not occur in the New Testament, but only in the LXX, it is linked to a different, and less detailed, source, and its definitions are drawn from Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon:

• ἵλεως híleōs, hil’-eh-oce; perhaps from the alternate form of G138; cheerful (as attractive), i.e. propitious; adverbially (by Hebraism) God be gracious!, i.e. (in averting some calamity) far be it:—be it far, merciful.
• ἱλασμός hilasmós, hil-as-mos’; atonement, i.e. (concretely) an expiator:—propitiation.
• ἱλαστήριον hilastḗrion, hil-as-tay’-ree-on; neuter of a derivative of G2433; an expiatory (place or thing), i.e. (concretely) an atoning victim, or (specially) the lid of the Ark (in the Temple):—mercyseat, propitiation.
• ἱλάσκομαι hiláskomai, hil-as’-kom-ahee; middle voice from the same as G2436; to conciliate, i.e. (transitively) to atone for (sin), or (intransitively) be propitious:—be merciful, make reconciliation for.
• ἐξιλάσκομαι exiláskomai, to propitiate, atone for, make atonement

In addition, there are these two related words, used only once each in the GNT, which I am listing for completeness and to give a sense of the range of meaning of this word family:

• ἱλαρός hilarós, hil-ar-os’; from the same as G2436; propitious or merry (“hilarious”), i.e. prompt or willing:—cheerful.
• ἱλαρότης hilarótēs, hil-ar-ot’-ace; from G2431; alacrity:—cheerfulness.

Note that the cross-references to G2433 (ἱλάσκομαι), G2436 (ἵλεως), and G2431 (ἱλαρός) show that these words are also interrelated. No derivation is given for ἐξιλάσκομαι because the referenced dictionary does not provide etymological information. However, as explained below, it is derived from the same root words, and has a similar meaning.

As you can see from the definition of the root word ἵλεως, similar to the figurative meanings of כָּפַר, the basic meaning of this word and its derivatives is a sense of mercy, propitiousness, and favor.

In the LXX and the GNT, these words are the most common translations or equivalents of the Hebrew word כָּפַר and its derivatives.

One difference between the LXX and the GNT is that instead of using the word ἱλάσκομαι that appears in the GNT, the LXX almost always uses ἐξιλάσκομαι, which is an intensified form of the same word. The prefixed preposition ἐξ- used in this way does not have its usual prepositional meaning “from,” but functions as an intensifier that means, “fully, completely.” This was the heavily preferred form of the word in the LXX, suggesting that the Israelites’ sins were fully atoned for by the sacrifices, whereas when the New Testament writers expressed the same idea, they used the simple, non-intensified ἱλάσκομαι instead.

This is mostly a difference in style, not in substance. Both words come from the same Greek root, and the basic meaning is the same in both instances. Though the GNT does not use the word ἐξιλάσκομαι, it expresses the same meaning through the word ἱλάσκομαι, which it then surrounds with words expressing the fullness and completeness of the atonement brought about by Christ’s sacrifice.

The link between כָּפַר and ἵλεως in the Septuagint

As suggested above, the Hebrew word כָּפַר and its derivatives are closely linked by translation to the Greek word ἵλεως and its derivatives.

Overwhelmingly, the LXX translates כָּפַר, “to cover over, pardon, be merciful” as ἐξιλάσκομαι. However, in three places it translates it as ἱλάσκομαι, and it uses three other Greek words to translate it spread over half a dozen other instances.

The LXX always translates כַּפֹּרֶת, “mercy seat,” as ἱλαστήριον.

The LXX translates כִּפֻּרִים, “atonement” as ἐξιλασμός a majority of the time, but does use a different Greek word in a smaller number of instances.

כֹּפֶר is the exception to the rule of the LXX overwhelmingly translating forms of כָּפַר as forms of ἵλεως. This word is translated into a number of different Greek words, none of them etymologically related to ἵλεως.

The big picture is that the LXX makes a strong connection between the Hebrew word כָּפַר and its derivatives, and the Greek word ἵλεως and its derivatives, such that these word families can be read as the corresponding versions of each other in Hebrew and Greek, respectively.

The link between כָּפַר and ἵλεως in the Greek New Testament

Since the GNT uses ἵλεως and its derivatives only a few times, and none of them are direct translations of Old Testament passages, there is not as much material to use in establishing the connection between כָּפַר and ἵλεως. And yet, there is a definite connection.

Hebrews 9:1–5 reads, in the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV):

Now the first covenant had regulations for worship and an earthly sanctuary. For a tent was constructed, the first one, in which were the lampstand, the table, and the bread of the Presence; this is called the holy place. Behind the second curtain was a tent called the holy of holies. In it stood the golden altar of incense and the ark of the covenant overlaid on all sides with gold, in which there were a golden urn holding the manna, and Aaron’s rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant; above it were the cherubim of glory overshadowing the mercy seat. Of these things we cannot speak now in detail. (emphasis added)

The original Greek word here translated “mercy seat” is ἱλαστήριον. In this passage, the writer of Hebrews is referring to the description of the Tabernacle in Exodus. Turning to that description, we find in Exodus 25:17:

Then you shall make a cover of pure gold; two cubits and a half shall be its length and a cubit and a half its width. (emphasis added)

The Hebrew word here translated “cover” is כַּפֹּרֶת, one of the derivatives of the root word כָּפַר. This establishes a direct connection between the various forms of כָּפַר in the Old Testament and the various forms of ἵλεως, in this case ἱλαστήριον, in the New Testament.

Based on this, it is only a small step to conclude that the other derivatives of ἵλεως, in particular ἱλασμός, are also associated with the Hebrew word כָּפַר.

ἱλαστήριον in Romans 3:24–25

Since the original question on Christianity StackExchange refers specifically to Romans 3:24–25, I will comment on that passage, which reads, in the NRSV:

they are now justified by his grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, whom God put forward as a sacrifice of atonement by his blood, effective through faith. He did this to demonstrate his righteousness, because in his divine forbearance he had passed over the sins previously committed; (emphasis added)

The NRSV adds in a note that the word translated “a sacrifice of atonement” could also be translated “a place of atonement.” The underlying Greek word is ἱλαστήριον. It is a reference to the mercy seat, which in the Hebrew Bible is always referred to as כַּפֹּרֶת, a derivative of כָּפַר. This establishes yet another connection between כָּפַר in the Old Testament and the idea of “propitiation” in the New Testament.

Though Swedenborg quotes Romans 3:25 twice in his concordance-like small work Scripture Confirmations, he does not provide any commentary or explanation on this verse anywhere in his theological writings. However, his extensive commentary on the mercy seat as it appears in Exodus, and as covered in my earlier article, makes the connection between this verse in Paul and the meaning and use of כָּפַר and its derivatives in the Hebrew Bible.

Swedenborg’s commentary on the mercy seat in the Old Testament can therefore be read as his commentary on the meaning of Christ being a “propitiation,” or “mercy seat” for our sins as stated by Paul in Romans 3:24–25. Specifically, by his sacrifice, Christ was not satisfying or assuaging God’s wrath, as Protestants hold, but rather was bringing God’s mercy and forgiveness to sinners who repent from their sins and are reborn according to the teaching of Christ and his Apostles.

Other uses of ἵλεως and its derivatives in the Greek New Testament

As covered above, in the GNT, ἱλαστήριον is used twice: in Romans 3:25 and Hebrews 9:5. Here, I will list and comment on the other occurrences of ἵλεως and its derivatives in the GNT. The Bible quotes are from the NRSV. Emphasis is added in all cases to indicate the English translation of the relevant Greek word.

ἵλεως

The root word ἵλεως is also used twice:

And Peter took him aside and began to rebuke him, saying, “God forbid it, Lord! This must never happen to you.” (Matthew 16:22)

The Greek for “God forbid it” is Ἵλεώς σοι, which is a Greek idiom.

And:

For I will be merciful toward their iniquities, and I will remember their sins no more.” (Hebrews 8:12)

The Greek word translated “merciful” is ἵλεως, used in its basic meaning of “be merciful.” This supports Swedenborg’s understanding of these words as being about God’s love, mercy, and compassion forgiving people for their sins, not about assuaging God’s wrath or satisfying God’s justice.

ἱλασμός

ἱλασμός is also used twice in the GNT, both times in the first epistle of John:

and he is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not for ours only but also for the sins of the whole world. (1 John 2:2)

And:

In this is love, not that we loved God but that he loved us and sent his Son to be the atoning sacrifice for our sins. (1 John 4:10)

In both cases, ἱλασμός is translated “atoning sacrifice.” The meaning of this from a Swedenborgian perspective is covered extensively in my earlier article. The atoning sacrifice is not to change God’s mind (satisfy God’s justice or assuage God’s wrath), but to change our minds and bring us into harmony with God through repentance from our sins and living according to God’s commandments.

This is in line with Paul’s statement that “in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them, and entrusting the message of reconciliation to us” (2 Corinthians 5:19). Note that God was reconciling the world (meaning human sinners) to himself in Christ. Christ was not reconciling God to us, as Catholic satisfaction theory and its Protestant penal substitution variant hold.

These passages perfectly present Swedenborg’s understanding that in Christ, God was reaching out to humanity out of God’s infinite love, mercy, and forgiveness, and sacrificing himself for us from that love and mercy.

ἱλάσκομαι

ἱλάσκομαι is also used twice in the GNT:

“But the tax collector, standing far off, would not even lift up his eyes to heaven but was beating his breast and saying, ‘God, be merciful to me, a sinner!’“ (Luke 18:13)

In this verse ἱλάσθητί, a form of the verb ἱλάσκομαι, is translated “be merciful,” once again supporting Swedenborg’s understanding of this word family.

And:

Therefore he had to become like his brothers and sisters in every respect, so that he might become a merciful and faithful high priest in the service of God, to make a sacrifice of atonement for the sins of the people. (Hebrews 2:17)

Here ἱλάσκεσθαι, another form of the verb ἱλάσκομαι, is translated “to make a sacrifice of atonement.” This is similar to the usages of ἱλασμός in 1 John 2:2; 4:10, and has the same meaning from a Swedenborgian perspective.

In summary, ἵλεως and its derivatives are used eight times in the GNT:

• ἵλεως (hileōs), “merciful” 2x: Matthew 16:22; Hebrews 8:12
• ἱλασμός (hilasmos), “propitiation” 2x: 1 John 2:2; 4:10
• ἱλαστήριον (hilastērion), “propitiation, mercy seat” 2x: Romans 3:25; Hebrews 9:5
• ἱλάσκομαι (hilaskomai), “be merciful, make reconciliation” 2x: Luke 18:13; Hebrews 2:17

In addition, two other related words are used once each in the GNT:

• ἱλαρός (hilaros), “cheerful”: 2 Corinthians 9:7
• ἱλαρότης (hilarotēs), “cheerfulness”: Romans 12:8

All these uses of ἵλεως and its derivatives accord perfectly with Swedenborg’s understanding of “propitiation” as God’s infinite love and mercy reaching out to us in Christ to bring about repentance and rebirth in us, thereby reconciling us to God by bringing us into harmony with God’s love and wisdom.

Conclusion

There is a direct connection between כָּפַר and its derivatives in the Hebrew Bible and the various derivatives of ἵλεως in the Greek New Testament, including ἱλασμός, ἱλαστήριον, and ἱλάσκομαι. This connection was originally mediated through the LXX, which the writers of the Greek New Testament had in mind when writing the books of the New Testament. And though the LXX usually uses a different, intensified form of the Greek verb form than the Greek New Testament does, this is mostly a matter of style, similar to the difference between saying “big” and “really big!”

Swedenborg is therefore on solid ground when he derives the meaning of “propitiation” (ἱλασμός) as used in the New Testament from the root meaning of כָּפַר and its derivatives as used in the Old Testament. These word families are the equivalents of each other in the Hebrew and Greek Bibles, and Swedenborg treats them as such.

Appendix: Swedenborg’s Bibles

Swedenborg had a copy of the Septuagint in his personal library, along with a number of other Hebrew, Greek, and Latin Bibles. For a listing of, and bibliographical information on, the books known to be in Swedenborg’s personal library, including 20+ volumes of Bibles and Bible dictionaries and concordances, see this PDF file:

Holdings-of-Swedenborg-Library.pdf

For those interested, Swedenborg’s copy of the Septuagint was a 1655 Cambridge edition, available in a web version on Google Books here.

Swedenborg not only had a copy the Septuagint in his personal library, but we know that he was aware of the Septuagint at least from the time of his young adulthood, because he mentions it in one of his early letters (see Swedenborg, Life and Teaching, by George Trobridge, 1949: Swedenborg Foundation, page 21). However, when he wrote his commentaries on the Bible, he worked primarily from the Hebrew and Greek Bibles. In providing translations into Latin for the purpose of his theological writings, he consulted various Latin translations, especially the one by Sebastian Schmidt, which he preferred for its literalism. Latin was the scholarly language of his day; Swedenborg therefore wrote his scientific and theological works in Latin.

Aside from the known fact that he had a copy of the Septuagint in his library, there is scant evidence that he made any regular use of it. However, there is one tantalizing clue that perhaps he did sometimes refer to his copy of the Septuagint. In #1012 of his unpublished work Apocalypse Explained, he uncharacteristically reverses the order of the commandments against killing and stealing. This reversed order is found in the Septuagint, suggesting that he may have been referring to the Septuagint at the time. See Note 1 in the translation linked at the section number just above.

There is no evidence that Swedenborg himself traced the meaning of ἱλασμός and ἱλαστήριον through the Septuagint to the New Testament. However, the New Testament writers themselves almost certainly did rely on the Septuagint in their use of these and related words—once again establishing a solid connection between כָּפַר in the Old Testament and ἱλασμός and ἱλαστήριον in the New Testament.

Swedenborg could have been aware of the connection. Since he had a copy of the Septuagint, and knew of its existence throughout his life, it is very likely that he read all or part of it at some point. But even if he didn’t, and wasn’t aware of the connection between these Hebrew and Greek word families through the Septuagint, for someone who was thoroughly familiar with the Bible, and could read both Hebrew and Greek, simply reading Hebrews 9:1–5 would be sufficient to establish that connection in his mind.

In short, Swedenborg’s linking of these Hebrew and Greek words through his explanations of the meaning of “propitiation” by drawing on the meaning of the mercy seat is on solid, indisputable biblical and linguistic ground. ἵλεως and its derivatives are the New Testament versions of כָּפַר and its derivatives in the Old Testament.

(Note: This post is an edited and expanded version of an answer I originally wrote and posted on Christianity StackExchange. You can see the original question on StackExchange here, and the StackExchange version of my answer here.)

For further reading:

• How did Swedenborg interpret 1 John 2:2: ‘He is the propitiation for our sins’?
• What is the Wrath of God? Why was the Old Testament God so Angry, yet Jesus was so Peaceful?
• What about 2 Corinthians 5:21? Didn’t God make Christ to be sin for us?
• Did Jesus Really Die to Pay the Penalty for our Sins?
• The Logic of Love: Why God became Jesus